The root morpheme is also called the lexical morpheme.

- Morpheme is the minimum/minimal meaningful unit of language.
e.g. teacher = teach + -er
- Types of morphemes
+ The root morpheme: (lexical morpheme / stem / stem): is the main element of a word and conveys its essential lexical meaning. The original remains after removing all other elements and cannot be parsed
e.g. book ish
help ful un kind
The root is classified into:
Free morphemes: function independently e.g. heart/y, read/able (heart, read: free roots).
Bound morphemes (hvi phụ thuộc) cannot function independently. They are especially characteristic of loan words.
+ The affixational morphemes (hình vị phụ tố): are further divided into grammatical morphemes (also inflection / ending) and derivational morpheme. (Hình vị phát sinh)
The grammatical morpheme (also inflection / ending) is used to create different forms of the same word. It carries the grammatical meanings only, and is therefore, studied in grammar.
e.g. -s in teacher/s -ed in work/ed -ing in working -er in taller
à The derivational morpheme (Hình vị phát sinh)
carries both lexical and grammatical meaning (also called lexico-grammatical morpheme).
Derivational morphemes are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and affixes: (tiền tố, hậu tố và...) Prefixes: un-, im-, dis- Suffixes: -ness, -ful, -less, -ize Infix (trung tố): -n- (in stand), spokesman, statesman, sportsman, fisherman, washerman, doomsday

· The word: A word is a dialectical unity of form and content, an independent unit of language to form a sentence by itself.
book, bookish: words
-ish: not word
· Types of word
Based on word structure, words are divided into three types: simple words, derived words and compound words.
- A simple word is one that only consists of a root morpheme (no derivational morpheme), e.g. girl, teach, work, white.
- A derived word is one that consists of a root and one or more derivational morphemes: teacher, worker, impression, modernization.
- A compound word is one that has at least two roots, with or without derivational morphemes: blackboard, classroom, happy-go-lucky, lady-killer, dining-room, bluebell, mother-in-law, good-for-nothing.

· Definition and characteristic features
A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound words, one of which has inflections.
Eg: classroom, time-table
· Compound words can be written in three ways: as open compounds (spelled as two words, e.g., ice cream), closed compounds (joined to form a single word, e.g., doorknob), or hyphenated compounds (two words joined by a hyphen, e.g., long-term). Sometimes, more than two words can form a compound (e.g., mother-in-law
· Classification of compound words
a. According to Structural classification
+ According to the structure of the immediate components
- simple stems: handbag, film-star
- derived stems: skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager
- abbreviated stems: maths-teacher, H-bomb, X-ray
- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket
- v + adv: break-down, cut-back
+ According to the part of speech
- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown
- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged
- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet-bomb, to streamline
- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently
- compound prepositions: onto, into, hereafter
- compound pronouns: someone, something
+ According to the type of composition
- compounds formed by juxtaposition: backache, heart-broken, railroad
- compounds formed by morphological means (with an infix): spokesman, Afro-Asian,
speedometer.
- compounds formed by syntactical means:
(word group —> compound ): up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry
- compounds formed by morphological and syntactical means:
kind-hearted: with a kind heart
blue-eyed: with blue eyes
teenager: a person in his teens
+ According to the relation between components
- Coordinative components (both are independent): socio-economical, brainmaster,
- Subordinative components (one component dominates over the other): wrist-watch,
b. Semantic classification
10
+ Non-idiomatic (morphologically motivated): The meaning of the whole can deduced form the meanings of the components: door-handle, headache,
+ Idiomatic (non-motivated): no semantic relation between components:
Nightmare
c. Phonetic classification:
They are reduplicative compounds which fall into three subgroups:
+ reduplicative compounds proper: hush-hush, pooh-pooh, murmur, quack-quack, puffpuff, fifty-fifty.
+ ablaut combinations: the second basic morpheme is repeated with a different vowel:
sing-song,
+ rhyme combinations: two pseudo- morphemes is joined to rhyme: lovey-dovey.

Criteria of compound words (compound words vs free word groups
· Phonological criterion
+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first component
e.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, 'dancing-girl
cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl
+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)
eg. 'good'egg 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born,
+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaning
e.g. 'over-work (việc làm thêm), 'over-'work (việc quá sức)
b. Criterion of the structural integrity
Compounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words. Endings are added to the whole word.
e.g. blackbirds, red-tape
c. Criterion of semantic integrity
The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.
e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)
fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)
d. Graphic (spelling) criterion
A compound can be spelt in three ways: with a hyphen between two components, with break and without break.
e.g. air-line, air line, airline
Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).
e.g. statesman, handicraft

· Shortening: a productive way of building words in English, especially in colloquial speech and advertisement.
e.g. ad (advertisement), TV
· types of shortening
Shortening includes abbreviation and blending.
+ Abbreviation: Acronyms and Clippinga. Acronyms: are words built from the initials of several words.
E.g. The UNO (United Nations Organization)
Two special cases of acronyms: monograms and homonymy-based acronyms.
+ Monograms: two or more letters combined in one design, often found in handkerchiefs, note-paper, Wedding invitation cards

+ Homonymy-based acronyms: based on the use of identical sounds of words and letters
e.g. IOU (I owe you)
b.Clipping: Initial, Final, Initio-final, Medial, Elliptico-conversional clipping
+ Initial clipping: the first part of the word is clipped.
Eg. Phone (telephone),
+ Final clipping: the last part of a word is clipped:
Eg. ad, advert (advertisement),
+ Initio-final clipping: both the first and the last parts are clipped:
e.g. frig/fridge (refrigerator)
+ Medial clipping: the medial part is clipped.
e.g. fancy (fantasy)
+Elliptico-conversional: (phrasal clipping): a combination of ellipsis, conversion and clipping:
e.g. Finals (final examinations)
+ Blending
one special type of shortening where parts of words merge into one new word.
Eg. Brunch (breakfast + lunch)

· Definition and characteristic features:
Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech without adding any element.
e.g. milk (n) to milk
· Types of conversion
1. Substantivation of adjectives : (adj ->n) and verbs ( v ->n) the formation of nouns from adjectives or the transition into nouns:
- the blind, the rich, the happy, the good.
- a walk, a move.
2. Adjectivization of nouns (n ->adj)
a silver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife.
3. Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj ->v)
to hand, water
4. Adverbalization of adjectives (adj ->adv)
fast, long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead
5. Partial conversion the building of some nouns from verbs
to have a look/ talk
6. Individual coinage in conversion the individual use of conversion in social situations, occasions to express one's idea vividly and humourously:
'Hello, dear!' He hello-deared everybody.
I'm tired of his 'hello-dear'.

· Grammatical meaning: is what unites words with different lexical meanings. It divides words into groups with their own grammatical features, for example:
table, chair, bed, book ... à singular nouns, common case
· Lexical meaning: is the realization of concept or emotion.
The word house ---realised in our mind as--------à
+ Denotational meaning: The denotative component expresses the conceptual (notional) content of a word. It includes or points out things, concepts.
A cat: "a small animal with soft fur and sharp teeth and claws, often kept as a pet, or in buildings to catch mice"
+ Connotational meaning: The connotative component shows us how things, concepts etc are indicated (denoted). It conveys the speaker's attitude, emotions and so on.eg. father, dad, daddy: the same denotational meaning but different main types of connotations are
· THE TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING: DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEANING
1. Direct meaning: is the meaning that directly denotes something without comparing it or associating with other things i.e. we do not need a context. Direct meaning is also called literal meaning.
2. Indirect meaning: is the meaning that indirectly denotes something. To understand it we have to compare it or associate with other things, i.e. we need context. Indirect meaning is also called figurative or transferred meaning
For example: Head
- direct meaning: part of the body
- indirect meaning: leader

· Definition Homonyms: words identical in pronunciation and/or spelling, but different in meaning.
eg. He ran fast (quickly)
They stand fast. (firmly)
· Types of homonyms
Homonyms are classified into:
a- according to form:
+ Full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling. They are of the same part of speech.
e.g. ball: a round object used in games.
ball: gathering of people for dancing
+ Partial homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and/or spelling. They are homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms. They may be found both within the same part of speech and in different parts of speech.

to found, founded, founded - to find, found, found
b. according to meaning:
+ Lexical homonyms: words of the same part of speech, but of different meanings and there is no semantic relation between them.
eg. match: que diêm, trận đấu
+ Grammatical homonyms: words of different parts of speech .
eg. work (n) - work (v)
c. From a different angle, homonyms are classified into:
+ Homophones: words identical in pronunciation, but different or coincidental in spelling.
eg. son - sun
+ Homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation.
Eg lead /li:d/ - lead / led /

· Definition
Synonyms are words (two or more) of the same part of speech, similar in their denotational meaning, but different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational meaning and combinability.
eg. to help, to aid, to assist, to succour
· Types of synonym
+ Absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings. They are few in number. This is a result of borrowing and territorial synonyms.
eg. Br E - team (in a football match) Am E - squad
autumn fall
+ Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaning
beautiful, pretty, good-looking, nice, lovely, fair
+ Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive value, expressiveness.
father - dad (colloq.) - daddy (colloq., emotional)
+ Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notions or processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire not to hurt other people's feelings.
eg. to die - to pass away, to depart this life/world
dead - late, deceased to dismiss —to sack, fire,
+ Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic aspect.
eg. to dismiss, to sack, to fire, to expel, to lay off, to kick out (sl)
+ Phraseological synonyms: words differing in their combinability.
eg. do exercises make money
native tongue foreign language

Metaphor : a figure of speech based on similarity. It is hidden comparison between the object/notion generally denoted by the word and the object/notion in question.
Types of similarity
+ similarity of appearance: (like part of the body)
leg of a table, needle's eye, arm of a chair/a river, mouth of a river
+ similarity of shape: head of cabbage, nose of a plane, bottle neck.
+ similarity of size: midget submarine, elephantine task, jumbo jetplane.
+ similarity of position: foot of the mountain/hill /page, head/ tail of a procession,
bottom of a page.
+ similarity of movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm, foxtrot
+ similarity of function: head of school/delegation/army, key to the mystery/ a problem
+ similarity of colour: an orange coat, rosy cheeks/ lips
+ similarity of sound : The room rang. The hall roared with laughter
+ similarity of quality : a lion, a fox, a bee/beaver, a filmstar
+ similarity of behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a wirepuller, an Othello, a Cicero.
+ Some metaphoric words are the result of the transfer of space relation upon psychological and mental notions (relation between concrete and abstract) : to catch/grasp an idea, to take a hint

· Metonymy a figure of speech based on contiguity (proximity) or close relation between two objects or notions.
· Types of relation:
+ Relation between container and the thing contained:
eg. The kettle is boiling.
He drank two glasses.
+ Relation between parts and the whole:
eg. Two heads are better than one.
+ Relation between the notion and its symbol:
eg. Grey hair should be respected.
the White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Fleet Street, Downing Street, the crown (monarchy).
+ Relation between the place and its inhabitants:
eg. the town, the city, the House of Commons, the House of Lords
The hall burst into applause.
+ Relation between the material and the thing made of it:
eg. an iron, eye glasses, the silver, the brass.
+ Relation between the instrument and its function:
e.g.- to knife, to eye
+ Relation between proper names and common names:
- name of place and name of products made there:
china, champagne, tweed, havana, bikini, morocco
- name of inventor and name of the invention
sandwich, mackintosh, pullman
- name of the author and name of his works
to read Dickens

There are two main layers: standard words and non-standard words
· STANDARD:
1.1 NEUTRAL WORDS:
Taking up the majority of the English vocabulary.
Used in all styles, in all spheres of life
Neither formal nor informal
Belonging to the basic stock of words.
e.g. nice, beautiful, tall, short, book, chair
1.2 COLLOQUIAL WORDS (STANDARD COLLOQUIAL):
- Used in spoken language
- Informal, casual, lively
- Many are short or shortened words
e.g. fellow, kid, dad, mom, exam
1.3 BOOKISH WORDS
a. General bookish words
Chiefly used in formal speech, esp. in writing, e.g. infant, assist, retire (to bed)
b. Scientific/learned words (terms)
e.g. lexicology, morphology, physics, newspapers, television
- Like neutral words
- Many are familiar to the public
- May be used figuratively: atmosphere, camp
- Usually monosemantic
- Become polysemantic when used for different sciences, e.g. operation
c. Poetic and archaic words
- Used in poetry, creating the elevated, solemn atmosphere
- May have an ironical function when denoting common things
- Steed (horse), thee (you), foe (enemy), admist (among)
d. Non-assimilated foreign words
- Borrowed from different languages
- Still retaining their spelling and pronunciation
- Creating local colour
e.g. chic (fashionable), fiance, fiancée, coup, rendezvous
· NON-STANDARD WORDS
- Chiefly used in spoken English
- Considered as non-standard colloquialism
V.2.1 Slang:
- Informal style
General slang: used by all people, excessive informality, e.g. dough (money), bird (girl),
Special Slang (also called jargon):
- Used within some social or professional group: school slang, military slang, political slang
- Understandable to the members of the group only.
Belly-robber (cook - miliatry sl), to take for a ride (to kill - criminals' sl),
V.2.2 Vulgar words (vulgarism):
- "dirty" words used by few people
- Expressing anger, annoyance, disagreement and other strong emotion
- Often heard among friends, students
- Vulgar words = vulgarisms
Dammed (dammed hot), bloody (bloody nice)
V.2.3 Dialectal words:
- Belonging to only a definite territory or locality
- Dialetical words = dialectisms
loch (Scottish) = lake

What morphemes are called root?

What is a lexical morpheme?

What is lexical morpheme example?

What are the 3 types of morphemes?