Technical writing

Writing at school and writing at work are different in all the following ways EXCEPT

Technical Writing Essentials

Introduction to Professional Communications in the Technical Fields

Candice Neveu and Monika Smith

University of Victoria

Victoria, British Columbia

Exceptions:

S.1. Excerpt from T. Wells, Scientific Sailboat Racing, New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1950, pp. 94-96. This book is out of print, and every attempt has been made to locate the copyright owner. For noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 1.5.1. Tufts University. “The Engineering design process”. Every attempt has been made to locate the copyright owner. For noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 3.4.1; 3.4.2. EPCOR, Edmonton’s Water Utility. “Water Consumption in Edmonton during 2010 Gold Medal hockey game”. This data is credited to EPCOR. Publication details of the originating report are unavailable. For noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 5.2.1. Cover images from journals are used to illustrate difference between popular and scholarly journals, and are for noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 5.2.2. DeSmog Blog. “Why climate deniers have no credibility — in one pie chart”. For noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 5.3.1. “Concept map for refining a topic on climate change”. Every attempt has been made to locate the copyright owner. For noncommercial, educational use only.
Fig. 7.4.1. Thumbnail cover of R. Sturnback and M. Okuna, Star Trek: The Next Generation: Technical Manual. New York: Pocket Books, 1991. For noncommercial, educational use only.

If you have any questions about the above, please contact

Cover image: Sailboat, photographer Suzan Last

Acknowledgements Suzan Last
Introduction Suzan Last
1. WHAT IS TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?
1.1 KEY CONCEPT: Problem-Solving Approach to Communications Tasks
1.2 Conventions and Characteristics
1.3 Understanding the Rhetorical Situation Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
1.4 Case Study: The Cost of Poor Communication
1.5 Writing Processes
2. PROFESSIONAL STYLE
2.1 KEY CONCEPT: Reader-Centred Writing
2.2 Communicating with Precision
2.3 Writing To Persuade
2.4 The Importance of Verbs
3. DOCUMENT DESIGN
3.1 KEY CONCEPT: Readability
3.2 Headings
3.3 Lists
3.4 Figures and Tables
3.5 Style Tips: Revising to Enhance Readability
4. TEAMWORK AND COMMUNICATION
4.1 Team Project Management Tools and Strategies Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
4.2 Five Models for Understanding Team Dynamics
4.3 Collaborative Writing Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
5. RESEARCH METHODS
5.1 Research Terminology
5.2 Finding and Evaluating Research Sources
5.3 Defining the Scope of your Project
5.4 Human Research Ethics
5.5 Stakeholder Engagement and Consultation
6. CITING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN IEEE STYLE
6.1 Frequently Asked Questions
6.2 Setting Up A Reference List - Sample Entries
7. COMMON DOCUMENT TYPES
7.1 Correspondence: Text Messages, Emails, Memos, and Letters CC BY-SA [Attribution ShareAlike]
7.2 Proposals
7.3 Progress Reports
7.4 Technical Descriptions and Definitions
7.5 Long Reports - Recommendation Reports and Feasibility Studies CC BY [Attribution]
7.6 Lab Reports
7.7 Writing Instructions CC BY [Attribution]
8. ORAL AND VISUAL PRESENTATIONS
8.1 Building Confidence as a Presenter Monika Smith and Suzan Last
8.2 Developing Presentation Skills Suzan Last and Monika Smith
8.3 Presenting as a Team Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
APPENDICES: Academic Writing Basics
Appendix A: Referring to Authors and Titles
Appendix B: Writing a Summary
Appendix C: Integrating Source Evidence into Your Writing Suzan Last and Candice Neveu
Appendix D: Transitional Words and Phrases for University Writing
Appendix E: Sentence Structure
Appendix F: Punctuation Matters
List of Links by Chapter for Print Users

1

Acknowledgements

Suzan Last

This work, first and foremost, has been a student-driven endeavor. Over the years, numerous students have requested an open, online resource, and have presented compelling research supporting the benefits of such a work. So it is thanks to them that this work first came into being.

It would not have made it this far without the generous support, collaboration, and peer review of many colleagues in the Humanities, Engineering, and Science faculties at the University of Victoria. Thanks is also due to the funding provided by an Open Education Resource grant from the University of Victoria’s Office of Research Services and Learning and Teaching Support and Innovation Division.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help and guidance of Inba Kehoe and her colleagues at the Copyright and Scholarly Communications Office at the University of Victoria, whose sharp editorial eyes and diligent quality control helped ensure that this book will be a valuable resource for students.

2

Introduction

Suzan Last

In our increasingly technological and internationalized workplaces, communications skills are among the most sought-after competencies employers require of job candidates. Every job posting you see will almost certainly ask for candidates with excellent communications skills and the ability to work effectively in teams. The ability to communicate clearly and effectively in written, verbal, visual, and interpersonal contexts is vital for success and advancement in the workplace.

No matter how brilliant or innovative an idea may be, if it is not communicated clearly and promoted effectively to the right audience, it will not become a reality. For an innovative idea to move from concept to project to completion requires many stages in a design process [see Figure 1], almost all of which require clear communication and effective teamwork.

Figure 1 Phases of a project and some accompanying communications tasks.[Lightbulb image]. [Online]. Available: //www.iconfinder.com/icons/667355/aha_brilliance_idea_think_thought_icon. Free for commercial use. [Image Description]

If the design and implementation teams cannot work and communicate effectively with each other, their final product will fail to meet its potential.

Technical Writing Essentials introduces the key elements of professional style, document design, collaboration, oral presentation, and research skills needed to design productive workplace documents and presentations for a variety of purposes and audiences.

Image Description

Figure 1 image description:

Once there is an idea, a project goes through a design process made up of four stages.

Pre-project planning.
- Problem Definition – identifying needs, goals, objectives, and constraints.
- Define context and do research.
- Identify potential projects.
- Public engagement projects; Stakeholder consultation.
Project Development.
- Propose a project [budget, timeline, etc.].
- Create or respond to a request for proposals, evaluate proposals.
- Develop or design solution concepts.
- Project management plan.
- Feasibility Studies, Recommendation Reports].
Project Implementation.
- Write contracts and apply for permits for construction and building sites.
- Progress reports, status updates.
- Documentation of project.
- Continued research and design improvements.
Project completion.
- Final reports and documentation.
- Close contracts.
- Ongoing Support: User Guides, Troubleshooting, FAQs.

[Return to Figure 1]

I

1. WHAT IS TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?

This chapter will help you

Understand what technical writing is, why its important, and what it looks like
Apply a “problem-solving” approach to communications tasks, starting by learning how to fully define the problem before looking for solutions
Recognize the main conventions and characteristics of technical writing, and how they differ from other forms, such as academic and journalistic writing
Understand the importance of defining the “rhetorical situation” in which you are communicating
Apply what you have learned so far by examining “case studies” that demonstrate the costs of p/technicalwriting/chapter/1-2-understanding-the-rhetorical-situation//technicalwriting/chapter/understandingrhetoricalsituation/oor communication
Appreciate the complexity and iterative nature of a writing process in determining what writing process works best for you.

When you hear the term “technical communication,” what comes to mind? Perhaps you think of scientific reports, specifications, instructions, software documentation, or technical manuals. And you would be correct. However, technical communication is so much more than that. Technical Writing is a genre of non-fiction writing that encompasses not only technical materials such as manuals, instructions, specifications, and software documentation, but it also includes writing produced in day-to-day business operations such as correspondence, proposals, internal communications, media releases, and many kinds of reports. It includes the communication of specialized technical information, whether relating to computers and scientific instruments, or the intricacies of meditation. And because oral and visual presentations are such an important part of professional life, technical communication also encompasses these as well.

Why are Technical Communication Skills Important?

In a recent presentation on the topic of Co-op Work Term Reports, S. McConkey, “Writing a work term report,” ENGR 120 Plenary Lecture, University of Victoria, March 3, 2017. the Engineering co-op coordinator for the University of Victoria presented the following statistics regarding the importance of communication skills in the professional world of engineering:

The Reality: Technical Writing and Communication

How graduate engineers spend their time:
- 25-50% Problem solving of some kind
- 50-75% Communicating [Writing and reading reports, letters, memos, proposals, presentations, discussions w/colleagues, managers, clients]
Performance evaluations and job advancement usually depend more on communications skills than on technical skills

He added that engineers who are more advanced in their careers spend only 5-10% of their time engaged in problem solving of some kind and 90-95% of their time engaging in related communications tasks: researching, writing and reading reports, proposals, emails, letters, memos; giving or attending presentations; discussing and meeting with colleagues, team mates, managers, clients, and so forth. In a recent survey of over 1000 professionals from various professions, over 70% of engineers and almost 50% of programmers rated the quality of their writing as either “very important” or “extremely important” to the performance of their jobs.J. Swartz, S. Pigg, J. Larsen, J. Helo Gonzalez, R. De Haas, and E. Wagner, "Communication in the workplace: What can NC State students expect?" Professional Writing Program, North Carolina State University, 2018 [Online]. Available: //docs.google.com/document/d/1pMpVbDRWIN6HssQQQ4MeQ6U-oB-sGUrtRswD7feuRB0/edit Clearly, as Barry Hyman asserts in Fundamentals of Engineering Design, “the stereotype that engineering is for inarticulate nerds is way off base.” B. Hyman, “Ch. 2: Problem formulation,” in Fundamentals of Engineering Design, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, p. 42.

Technical communication is “transactional” – it entails a purposeful transaction between sender and receiver that provides specific information for practical and specific purposes [informing, instructing, persuading] and is usually geared towards the needs of a specific audience. Technical communicators produce a wide variety of documents and other products, such as

Proposals and requests for proposals [RFPs]
Technical or research reports
Documentation records and product specifications
User guides [step-by-step instructions, procedures, manuals]
Online help, technical support
Reference information [encylopedia-style information]
Consumer literature [information for the public about regulations, safety issues, etc.]
Marketing literature [product specifications, brochures, promotional literature]
Technical journalism [found in trade magazines, media releases, etc.]

Thus, it is a highly “designed” form of communication that requires practitioners to have a heightened awareness of the conventions [rules and expectations] and rhetorical situations [audience, purpose, context] in which they are communicating.

This textbook aims to provide you with that heightened awareness – that is, to introduce you to the basic conventions of technical communications, and to train you to take a reader-centred or audience-centred approach to communications tasks, to find the tools and methods that will work best to communicate your ideas to your target audience, and to achieve the desired results.

What Does Technical Writing Look Like?

Technical communications can take many forms, depending on the purpose and intended audience. Consider the following example of technical writing, which is an excerpt adapted from a book called Scientific Sailboat Racing by Ted Wells. T. Wells, Scientific Sailboat Racing, New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1950, pp. 94-96. From the excerpt in the box below, what can you tell about the intended audience?

The most common question asked by skippers wanting to get to the windward mark faster than they have been doing is “How can I make my boat point higher?” Getting to the windward mark first depends primarily on the skill and experience of the skipper; however, having a well-rigged boat will make a significant difference. Look for the following, in order of importance:

Sails: Have good quality sails, and use the appropriate sails for the wind conditions expected. No one can win races with poor sails, so use the best you can afford. Keep in mind that the leeches of all sails flutter a little, the jib will backwind the luff of the main on any full or medium sail, and in very light wind, even a perfectly cut sail will probably develop a wrinkle along the front of the battens. If the sails are obviously no good, replace them.
Mast and Centerboard: Ensure that the mast is far enough forward and the centerboard is far enough back so that there is little or no weather helm. Make sure the stiffness of the mast suits the sails.
Jib Fairleads: Ensure jib fairleads are properly located for the type of jib being used and the strength of wind expected.
Cleats: Have cleats for both jib and mainsheet; place cleats so that crew can easily make small adjustments for varying wind velocities and hang on the to the jib sheet without having it pop out of the cleat.
Traveler: Have a mainsheet traveler that allows the main to be pulled down without pulling the boom in too far; it should allow the sail to be pulled down tightly enough so that the leech does not fall off without pulling the boom in any further than it should be.
Tiller: Have a flexible tiller extension that allows you to sit well forward, but can be adjusted so that it does not get in the way when coming about.
Boat Weight: Keep the boat as close to minimum weight as possible. Clearly, a lighter boat is easier to handle, but this is not as critical as other factors. If choosing between a lighter crew member with less skill and experience, and a heavier crew member who has greater skill, the latter is usually preferable.

Once the boat is properly set up, a skilled and experienced skipper can point significantly higher than expected by understanding and using wind deflection from other boats. Immediately to leeward of any boat and extending for a distance of about three mast lengths, there is a wind shadow where the wind velocity is greatly decreased. To leeward of the bow of the boat there is a very small region where the direction of the wind is deflected opposite to the normal deflection and where the velocity is accelerated slightly [see Figure 34]. Except in the direct wind shadow, the deflection of the wind is more important than the decrease in wind velocity, as the decrease in velocity is very slight except in the immediate shadow of the sails of the windward boat.

Because of this wind deflection, a boat on the opposite tack cutting behind another boat will be able to point appreciably higher than it normally would. Many skippers on port tacks who thought they could clear starboard tackers have been fooled by not realizing this fact. The deflection of their wind in trying to cross in front of the starboard tacker will enable the starboard tacker to point higher without luffing than he normally would be able to do, and the port tacker who thought he could squeeze by suddenly finds that he cannot [See Figure 35].

Reflect on the description and example of technical writing above in relation to your experience as an employee, as a student, or as a practitioner of a hobby. What kinds of documents have you written that could fall under the genre of Technical Writing?

Write a paragraph or two on a topic about which you have specialized knowledge, and can use specialized terminology to explain the idea or instruct the reader. For example, you might write about effective techniques for executing certain skateboard maneuvers or how to execute a yoga position such as a “downward facing dog.” Consider your audience when choosing how to write this. Will the audience have to be familiar with the terminology used, as in the above sailing example? See if you can “baffle me with your techno-jargon” and then re-write for a general audience, using plain language.

1.1 KEY CONCEPT: Problem-Solving Approach to Communications Tasks

In the workplace, many of the communications tasks you perform are designed to solve a problem or improve a situation. Whether you are doing work for a client, for your employer, with your team, or for someone else, you will typically use some sort of design process to tackle and solve the problem. A clearly-articulated design process provides you with a clear, step-by-step plan for finding the best solution for your situation.

Take a moment to search the Internet for the term “design process” and look at “images.” You will find many variations. Have a look at several of them and see if you can find a common pattern.

One commonality you will likely find in examining other people’s design process diagrams is this: the first step in designing any solution is to clearly define the problem. Figure 1.1.1 shows NASA’s basic design process. Think about the kind of communication that each step of this process might entail.

You cannot begin to work on solutions until you have a clear definition of the problem and goals you want to achieve. This critical first stage of the design process requires that you effectively communicate with the “client” or whoever has the “problem” that needs solving. Poor communication at this stage can derail a project from the start.

For our purposes, we will use Barry Hyman’s Problem Formulation model B. Hyman, “Ch. 2: Problem formulation,” in Fundamentals of Engineering Design, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, pp. 40-54. to clearly define a problem. Hyman’s Problem Formulation model consists of 4 elements:

Need Statement: recognizes and describes the need for a solution or improvement to an “unsatisfactory situation.” It answers the questions, “what is wrong with the way things are currently? What is unsatisfactory about it? What negative effects does this situation cause?” You may need to do research and supply data to quantify the negative effects.
Goal Statement: describes what the improved situation would look like once a solution has been implemented. The goal statement defines the scope of your search for a solution. At this point, do not describe your solution, only the goal that any proposed solution should achieve. The broader you make your goal, the more numerous and varied the solution can be; a narrowly focused goal limits the number and variety of possible solutions.
Objectives: define measurable, specific outcomes that any feasible solution should optimize [aspects you can use to “grade” the effectiveness of the solution]. Objectives provide you with ways to quantifiably measure how well any solution will solve the problem; ideally, they will allow you to compare multiple solutions and figure out which one is most effective [which one gets the highest score on meeting the objectives?].
Constraints: define the limits that any feasible solution must adhere to in order to be acceptable [pass/fail conditions, range limits, etc.]. The key word here is must — constraints are the “go/no go” conditions that determine whether a solution is acceptable or not. These often include budget and time limits, as well as legal, safety and regulatory requirements.

Communication as Solution

This model can apply to a communications task as well as more physical design tasks. Imagine your communications task as something that will solve a problem or improve a situation. Before you begin drafting this document or presentation, define the problem you want to solve with this document:

Understand the Need: consider what gave rise to the need to communicate. Does someone lack sufficient information to make a decision or take a position on an issue? Did someone request information? Is there some unsatisfactory situation that needs to be remedied by communicating with your audience? What specifically is unsatisfactory about it? Consider your audience. For example
- A potential client lacks sufficient information on whether the solution I have proposed to solve the client’s problem will be feasible, affordable, and effective.
- My instructor lacks sufficient examples of my written work to assign a grade for how well I met the course learning objectives.
Establish a Goal: consider your purpose in writing. What do you want your reader to do, think, or know? Do you want your reader to make a decision? Change their opinion or behaviour? Follow a course of action? What is your desired outcome? And what form and style of communication will best lead to that outcome? For example
- Provide the client with enough information, in an effective and readable format, to make a decision [ideally, to hire you to build the solution for the problem].
- Provide my instructor with samples of my writing that demonstrate my achievement of the course learning objectives [provide relevant and complete information in a professionally appropriate format, using evidence-based argument; earn an A+ grade on the assignment.]
Define Objectives: consider the specifics of your message and your audience to determine what criteria you should meet. What form should it take? What content elements will you need to include? What kind of research will be required? What information does your audience want/need? What do they already know?
- Review the client’s RFP to see what specific objectives it lists.
- Review the Technical Report Grading Rubric to determine specific requirements and objectives that will be graded by your instructor.
Identify Constraints: what are the pass/fail conditions of this document? Consider your rhetorical situation. What conditions exist that present barriers or challenges to communication? How can you address them? For example, how much time is your audience willing to spend on this? What format and style do they require? How long can you make your document or presentation? How much time do you have to create it? Do you have a deadline? A Style Guide you must follow? A template you can use? [e.g., word limit, due date, pass/fail criteria such as avoiding plagiarism, etc.]

Think of a problem or an “unsatisfactory situation” that you have recently experienced. It could be as simple as it’s 8pm, I haven’t had dinner yet, and I’m hungry. Use Hymen’s Problem Formulation schema to formally define the problem — without proposing any particular solutions. Your problem definition should ideally allow a multitude of possible solutions that adhere to the following:

Need/Unsatisfactory situation:
What is your goal?
What are some measurable objectives you want to achieve?
What are your constraints?

Download and use the attached Problem Definition Template [.docx]

1.2 Conventions and Characteristics

Every genre of writing has unique characteristics and rules, called conventions, that help readers classify a document as belonging to a particular genre. This also applies to film and music. Think about the last movie you saw. What type of movie was it? What about that movie gave you that impression? Did the characters wear Stetson hats, ride horses, and carry guns? Did they fly in space ships, encounter alien beings, and use futuristic technology? Those elements are typical conventions of Western and Science Fiction genres.

Non-fiction is a category that can be broken into various genres. The main genres that are relevant to us are journalism [newspaper writing], academic writing [written by scholars and published in peer reviewed academic journals or books], and technical writing. Before we get into the specific conventions that characterize technical writing, take a moment to think back to your academic writing course and list some conventions typical of journalism [popular press] and academic writing in Table 1.1.1.

TABLE 1.1.1 Identify the conventions for journalistic and academic writingCriteriaJournalisticAcademicPurposeAudienceWriting StyleToneStructureFormat/FormattingOther Features

Like journalism and scholarly writing, technical writing also has distinct features that readers expect to see in documents that fall within this genre. These include [a] use of headings to organize information into coherent sections, [b] use of lists to present information concisely, [c] use of figures and tables to present data and information visually, and [d] use of visual design to enhance readability [all of these topics are covered in Chapter 3: Document Design]. These conventions are connected to the main purposes of technical writing, which include communicating the following:

Technical or specialized information in an accessible and usable ways
Clear instructions on how to do something in a clear manner
Information that advances the goals of the company or organization.

Technical documentation is intended to communicate information to the people who need it in a way that is clear and easy to read, at the right time to help make decisions and to support productivity. Designing technical communication is like designing any other product for an intended user: the ultimate goal is to make it “user friendly.”

Key words here are accessible, usable, clear, goal-oriented, effective, and reader-centred. The characteristics of technical writing support these goals and concepts.

If we filled in Table 1.1 with typical characteristics of technical writing, it might look something like Table 1.1.2:

TABLE 1.1.2 Conventions of technical writingCriteriaTechnical Writing
PurposeAudienceWriting StyleToneStructureFormat/FormattingOther Features

To communicate technical and specialized information in a clear, accessible, usable manner to people who need to use it to make decisions, perform processes, or support company goals.

Varied, but can include fellow employees such as subordinates, colleagues, managers, and executives, as well as clients and other stakeholders, the general public, and even readers within the legal system.

Concise, clear, plain, and direct language; may include specialized terminology; typically uses short sentences and paragraphs; uses active voice; makes purpose immediately clear.

Business/professional in tone, which falls between formal and informal; may use first person or second person if appropriate; courteous and constructive.

Highly structured; short paragraphs; clear transitions and structural cues [headings and sub-headings] to move the reader through and direct the reader.

Can be in electronic, visual, or printed formats; may be long [reports] or short [emails, letters, memos]; often uses style guides to describe required formatting features; uses headings, lists, figures and tables.

Typically objective and neutral; ideas are evidence and data-driven; descriptors are precise and quantitative whenever possible.

1.3 Understanding the Rhetorical Situation

Suzan Last and Candice Neveu

It is common knowledge in the workplace that no one really wants to read what you write, and even if they want to or have to read it, they will likely not read all of it. So how do you get your reader to understand what you need quickly and efficiently? Start by doing a detailed Task and Audience Analysis — make sure you understand the “rhetorical situation.” Before you begin drafting a document, determine the needs of your rhetorical situation [See Figure 1.3.1].

Figure 1.3.1 The Rhetorical Situation.

The “rhetorical situation” is a term used to describe the components of any situation in which you may want to communicate, whether in written or oral form. To define a “rhetorical situation,” ask yourself this question: “who is talking to whom about what, how, and why?” There are five main components:

Purpose
Writer
Audience
Message
Context/Culture

PURPOSE refers to the why you are writing. Determining your purpose requires that you engage in Task Analysis — that is, determine what you hope to accomplish by writing this document. Ask yourself what you hope the reader[s] will do/think/decide/ or how they will behave as a result of reading the text. There are three general purposes for communication in the workplace: 1] to create a record, 2] to give or request information, and 3] to persuade.

Within those general purposes, you will find a myriad of specific purposes. For example, your purpose may be to propose an innovative solution to a specific problem. In this case, you want the reader to agree to explore the idea further, or approve funding for further research and development, which would fall under the general purpose of writing to persuade.

WRITER refers to you, the writer/creator/designer of the communication. It is important to examine your own motivation for writing and any biases, past experiences, and knowledge you bring to the writing situation. These elements will influence how you craft the message, whether positively or negatively. This examination should also include your role within the organization, as well as your position relative to your target audience.

AUDIENCE refers to your readers/listeners/viewers/users. Audience Analysis is possibly the most critical part of understanding the rhetorical situation. Consider Figure 1.3.2 below. Is your audience internal [within your company] or external [such as clients, suppliers, customers, other stakeholders]? Are they lateral to you [at the same position or level], upstream from you [management], or downstream from you [employees, subordinates]? Who is the primary audience? Who are the secondary audiences? These questions, and others, help you to create an understanding of your audience that will help you craft a message that is designed to effectively communicate specifically to them.

Figure 1.3.2 Understanding your relationship to your audience.

Keep in mind that your different audiences will also have a specific purpose in reading your document. Consider what their various purposes might be, and how you can best help them achieve their purpose. Considering what they are expected to do with the information you provide will help you craft your message effectively. Consider also that technical writing often has a long “life-span” – a document you write today could be filed away and reviewed months or even years down the road. Consider the needs of that audience as well.

Audience	Purpose for Reading
Executives	Make decisions
Supervising Experts/Managers	Advise decision makers; direct subordinates
Technical Experts/Co-workers	Implement decisions; advise
Lay People/Public/Clients	Become informed; choose options; make decisions

Some companies develop audience profiles to help guide their communications. This is a good exercise whenever you have something to communicate, especially if the information is complex. Here are some questions to consider as part of the audience profile:

Developing an Audience Profile

Who are your primary readers? [specific names and titles, or general roles]
Are they above you in the organizational hierarchy? Lateral, subordinate? Outside of your organization?
Who else might read this document? [secondary readers]
Do you know what their attitude towards the topic is?
How might cultural differences affect their expectations and interpretations?
How much technical background do the readers have?
How much do they already know about the topic?
What situation gave rise to this document?

MESSAGE refers to what information you want to communicate. This is the content of your document. It should be aligned to your purpose and targeted to your audience. While it is important to carefully choose what content your audience needs, it is equally critical to cut out content that your audience does not need or want. “Time is money” may be a tired old cliché, but it is important to avoid wasting your audience’s time with information that is unnecessary or irrelevant to them. Your message should be professional, and expressed in an appropriate tone for the audience, purpose, and context. We will discuss aspects of using a professional style and tone in crafting your message more in Chapter 2.

CONTEXT refers to the situation that creates the need for the writing. In other words, what has happened or needs to happen that creates the need for communication? The context is influenced by timing, location, current events, and culture, which can be organizational or social. Ignoring the context for your communication could result in awkward situations, or possibly offensive ones. It will almost certainly impact your ability to clearly convey your message to your audience.

Consider the subtle [and not so subtle] similarities and differences in the rhetorical situation when you offer feedback on Course Experience Surveys vs when you evaluate an instructor on Ratemyprofessor.com.

	Course Evaluation Survey	Ratemyprofessor.com
Purpose
Audience
Writer
Message
Context

Download Task and Audience Analysis Exercises [.docx]

The table below contains a collection of details about a research project you have just completed on rising sea levels. Imagine that you’re writing documents for each of the 5 following audiences:

Your supervisor/boss
Scientists
The general public
Politician
High school students

What information about rising sea levels might each audience be interested in? As you go down the list, write in the blank spaces in front of each detail the letter that corresponds to the audiences that you think would find this detail most relevant.

Consider what kind of document might contain that information for that audience.

Interested Audience	Categories of Information on Sea Level Rise
	The dollar damage caused by sea level increases each year.
	A literature review of previous research on rising sea levels.
	Descriptions of calibration procedures for your instruments.
	Some basic physics of how tides and currents work.
	How much your project costs.
	A log of all your measurements during the whole project.
	A list of people who worked on the project.
	Specifications of a new instrument to measure water conditions.
	A new result showing a connection between sea level and coastal developments.
	Procedures you used to avoid statistical biases in your data.
	Your plans for further measurements.
	Your recommendations for future research.

1.4 Case Study: The Cost of Poor Communication

No one knows exactly how much poor communication costs business, industry and government each year, but estimates suggest billions. In fact, a recent estimate claims that the cost in the U.S. alone are close to $4 billion annually!J. Bernoff, "Bad writing costs business billions," Daily Beast, Oct. 16, 2016 [Online]. Available: //www.thedailybeast.com/bad-writing-costs-businesses-billions?ref=scroll Poorly-worded or inefficient emails, careless reading or listening to instructions, documents that go unread due to poor design, hastily presenting inaccurate information, sloppy proofreading — all of these examples result in inevitable costs. The problem is that these costs aren’t usually included on the corporate balance sheet at the end of each year, so often the problem remains unsolved.

You may have seen the Project Management Tree Cartoon before [Figure 1.4.1]; it has been used and adapted widely to illustrate the perils of poor communication during a project [you can make your own version at ProjectCartoon.com!].

The waste caused by imprecisely worded regulations or instructions, confusing emails, long-winded memos, ambiguously written contracts, and other examples of poor communication is not as easily identified as the losses caused by a bridge collapse or a flood. But the losses are just as real—in reduced productivity, inefficiency, and lost business. In more personal terms, the losses are measured in wasted time, work, money, and ultimately, professional recognition. In extreme cases, losses can be measures in property damage, injuries, and even deaths.

The following “case studies” show how poor communications can have real world costs and consequences. For example, consider the “Comma Quirk” in the Rogers Contract that cost $2 million.G. Robertson, “Comma quirk irks Rogers,” Globe and Mail, Aug. 6, 2006 [Online]. Available: //www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/comma-quirk-irks-rogers/article1101686/ A small error in spelling a company name cost £8.8 million.“The £8.8m typo: How one mistake killed a family business,” [28 Jan. 2015]. The Guardian [online]. Available: //www.theguardian.com/law/shortcuts/2015/jan/28/typo-how-one-mistake-killed-a-family-business-taylor-and-sons Examine Tufte’s dis

cussion [.pdf] of the failed PowerPoint presentation that attempted to prevent the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster.E. Tufte, The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint, 2001 [Online]. Available: //www.inf.ed.ac.uk/teaching/courses/pi/2016_2017/phil/tufte-powerpoint.pdf The failure of project managers and engineers to communicate effectively resulted in the deadly Hyatt Regency walkway collapse.C. McFadden, "Understanding the tragic Hyatt Regency walkway collapse," Interesting Engineering, July 4, 2017 [Online]: //interestingengineering.com/understanding-hyatt-regency-walkway-collapse The case studies below offer a few more examples that might be less extreme, but much more common.

In small groups, examine each “case” and determine the following:

Define the rhetorical situation: Who is communicating to whom about what, how, and why? What was the goal of the communication in each case?
Identify the communication error [poor task or audience analysis? Use of inappropriate language or style? Poor organization or formatting of information? Other?]
Explain what costs/losses were incurred by this problem.
Identify possible solutions or strategies that would have prevented the problem, and what benefits would be derived from implementing solutions or preventing the problem.

Present your findings in a brief, informal presentation to the class.

Exercises adapted from T.M Georges’ Analytical Writing for Science and Technology.T.M. Goerges [1996], Analytical Writing for Science and Technology [Online], Available: //www.scribd.com/document/96822930/Analytical-Writing

Bruce, a research chemist for a major petro-chemical company, wrote a dense report about some new compounds he had synthesized in the laboratory from oil-refining by-products. The bulk of the report consisted of tables listing their chemical and physical properties, diagrams of their molecular structure, chemical formulas and computer printouts of toxicity tests. Buried at the end of the report was a casual speculation that one of the compounds might be a particularly effective insecticide.

Seven years later, the same oil company launched a major research program to find more effective but environmentally safe insecticides. After six months of research, someone uncovered Bruce’s report and his toxicity tests. A few hours of further testing confirmed that one of Bruce’s compounds was the safe, economical insecticide they had been looking for.

Bruce had since left the company, because he felt that the importance of his research was not being appreciated.

The Acme Electric Company worked day and night to develop a new current regulator designed to cut the electric power consumption in aluminum plants by 35%. They knew that, although the competition was fierce, their regulator could be produced more cheaply, was more reliable, and worked more efficiently than the competitors’ products.

The owner, eager to capture the market, personally but somewhat hastily put together a 120-page proposal to the three major aluminum manufacturers, recommending that their regulators be installed at all company plants.

She devoted the first 87 pages of the proposal to the mathematical theory and engineering design behind his new regulator, and the next 32 to descriptions of the new assembly line she planned to set up to produce regulators quickly. Buried in an appendix were the test results that compared her regulator’s performance with present models, and a poorly drawn graph showed how much the dollar savings would be.

Acme Electric didn’t get the contracts, despite having the best product. Six months later, the company filed for bankruptcy.

As one of the first to enter the field of office automation, Sagatec Software, Inc. had built a reputation for designing high-quality and user-friendly database and accounting programs for business and industry. When they decided to enter the word-processing market, their engineers designed an effective, versatile, and powerful program that Sagatec felt sure would outperform any competitor.

To be sure that their new word-processing program was accurately documented, Sagatec asked the senior program designer to supervise writing the instruction manual. The result was a thorough, accurate and precise description of every detail of the program’s operation.

When Sagatec began marketing its new word processor, cries for help flooded in from office workers who were so confused by the massive manual that they couldn’t even find out how to get started. Then several business journals reviewed the program and judged it “too complicated” and “difficult to learn.” After an impressive start, sales of the new word processing program plummeted.

Sagatec eventually put out a new, clearly written training guide that led new users step by step through introductory exercises and told them how to find commands quickly. But the rewrite cost Sagatec $350,000, a year’s lead in the market, and its reputation for producing easy-to-use business software.

Joanne supervised 36 professionals in 6 city libraries. To cut the costs of unnecessary overtime, she issued this one-sentence memo to her staff:

When workloads increase to a level requiring hours in excess of an employee’s regular duty assignment, and when such work is estimated to require a full shift of eight [8] hours or more on two [2] or more consecutive days, even though unscheduled days intervene, an employee’s tour of duty shall be altered so as to include the hours when such work must be done, unless an adverse impact would result from such employee’s absence from his previously scheduled assignment.

After the 36 copies were sent out, Joanne’s office received 26 phone calls asking what the memo meant. What the 10 people who didn’t call about the memo thought is uncertain. It took a week to clarify the new policy.

The following excerpt is from Carl Sagan’s book, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark,C. Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark, New York, NY: Random House, 1995. itself both a plea for and an excellent example of clear scientific communication:

The Superconducting Supercollider [SSC] would have been the preeminent instrument on the planet for probing the fine structure of matter and the nature of the early Universe. Its price tag was $10 to $15 billion. It was cancelled by Congress in 1993 after about $2 billion had been spent — a worst of both worlds outcome. But this debate was not, I think, mainly about declining interest in the support of science. Few in Congress understood what modern high-energy accelerators are for. They are not for weapons. They have no practical applications. They are for something that is, worrisomely from the point of view of many, called “the theory of everything.” Explanations that involve entities called quarks, charm, flavor, color, etc., sound as if physicists are being cute. The whole thing has an aura, in the view of at least some Congresspeople I’ve talked to, of “nerds gone wild” — which I suppose is an uncharitable way of describing curiosity-based science. No one asked to pay for this had the foggiest idea of what a Higgs boson is. I’ve read some of the material intended to justify the SSC. At the very end, some of it wasn’t too bad, but there was nothing that really addressed what the project was about on a level accessible to bright but skeptical non-physicists. If physicists are asking for 10 or 15 billion dollars to build a machine that has no practical value, at the very least they should make an extremely serious effort, with dazzling graphics, metaphors, and capable use of the English language, to justify their proposal. More than financial mismanagement, budgetary constraints, and political incompetence, I think this is the key to the failure of the SSC.

Chris was simultaneously enrolled in a university writing course and working as a co-op student at the Widget Manufacturing plant. As part of his co-op work experience, Chris shadowed his supervisor/mentor on a safety inspection of the plant, and was asked to write up the results of the inspection in a compliance memo. In the same week, Chris’s writing instructor assigned the class to write a narrative essay based on some personal experience. Chris, trying to be efficient, thought that the plant visit experience could provide the basis for his essay assignment as well.

He wrote the essay first, because he was used to writing essays and was pretty good at it. He had never even seen a compliance memo, much less written one, so was not as confident about that task. He began the essay like this:

On June 1, 2018, I conducted a safety audit of the Widget Manufacturing plant in New City. The purpose of the audit was to ensure that all processes and activities in the plant adhere to safety and handling rules and policies outlined in the Workplace Safety Handbook and relevant government regulations. I was escorted on a 3-hour tour of the facility by…

Chris finished the essay and submitted it to his writing instructor. He then revised the essay slightly, keeping the introduction the same, and submitted it to his co-op supervisor. He “aced” the essay, getting an A grade, but his supervisor told him that the report was unacceptable and would have to be rewritten – especially the beginning, which should have clearly indicated whether or not the plant was in compliance with safety regulations. Chris was aghast! He had never heard of putting the “conclusion” at the beginning. He missed the company softball game that Saturday so he could rewrite the report to the satisfaction of his supervisor.

1

1.5 Writing Processes

Just as we use design processes to creatively solve complex problems, we use writing processes to create complex documents. In both cases, there are steps or stages, but we don’t always proceed directly from one step to next in a chronological manner. These processes are often iterative, meaning we might return to previous stages in the process from time to time. The more complex the task, the more iteration might be needed. Examine the Design Process [Figure 1.5.1] and Writing Process [Figure 1.5.2] diagrams below. What similarities and differences can you see in these two processes?

Figure 1.5.1 Design Process. "The Engineering design process," Tufts University, [Online]. Available: //engineering.tufts.edu/ggs/designprocess.htm. [Image description]

Figure 1.5.2 Writing Process Diagram. M.J. Curry and A. Hewings "Approaches to teaching writing," in Teaching Academic Writing: A Toolkit for Higher Education. New York: Routledge, 2003. Used with permission. [Image description]

You may have come across a “writing process” before, and it may or may not have worked well for you. There is no single process that works for everyone in every situation. The key is to recognize the various steps in a typical writing process and figure out how to use or adapt them most effectively for your situation.

For example, you may have come across the 40-20-40 writing process, which suggests that you should break up the amount of time you spend on the writing task into three distinct stages of planning, drafting and revising, and give each one a specific percentage of the time you have available.

40-20-40 Writing Process

Stage 1 – Planning: spend 40% of your time planning your document [task analysis, thinking, discussing, free-writing, researching, brainstorming, concept mapping, focusing ideas, outlining, etc.]

Stage 2 – Drafting: spend 20% of your time writing a rough draft [quickly getting all your ideas down in print, in more or less complete sentences and paragraphs, in more or less the right order, without agonizing over style or grammar choices]

Stage 3 – Revising: spend 40% of your time revising, editing, and proofreading [polishing your draft, making sure the content is complete and well supported, ideas flow logically, formatting meets expectations, expression is grammatically correct and has the appropriate tone and vocabulary].

These percentages are a helpful guideline, as they emphasize the need to allot significant time for revision, but don’t always work for all people in all situations [think of a final exam situation!]. It also does not clearly account for the need to iterate; sometimes while revising your draft [stage 3], you may have to go back to the planning stage [stage 1] to do additional research, adjust your focus, or reorganize ideas to create a more logical flow. Writing, like any kind of design work, demands an organic and dynamic process.

As with the design process, the writing process must begin with an understanding of the problem you are trying to solve. In an educational context, this means understanding the assignment you’ve been given, the specifications of that assignment, the objectives you are meant to achieve, and the constraints you must work within [due dates, word limits, research requirements, etc.]. This is often referred to as “Task Analysis.” In professional contexts, you must also consider who your intended reader[s] will be, why they will be reading this document, and what their needs are, as well as deadlines and documentation requirements.

Consider an upcoming writing assignment or task you must complete. To avoid putting it off until the last minute [and possibly doing a poor job], try planning a writing process for this task, and build in milestones. Anticipate how long various sub-tasks and stages might take. Make sure to include time for “task and audience analysis” to fully understand what’s involved before you start. Consider the following:

What is the purpose of the document? What are the specific requirements? Who will read it and why?
How much planning is needed? What will this entail? Will you need to do research? Do you need to come up with a topic or focus, or has one been assigned to you?
How complicated will the document be? Will it have several sections? Graphics? How much revision will be needed to perfect your document? Will you have time for a peer/tutor review?

Now try using the Assignment Calculatorto see if it offers something similar to your planned writing process.

Image descriptions

Figure 1.5.1 image description:

A design process flow chart that encourages you to revisit previous steps as needed.

Define the problem. This involves a needs assessment, problem statement, designing criteria and goals and background research.
Generate possible solutions. Brainstorming using the idea trigger method, thumbnail sketching, and creative thinking. At this point, you may need to revisit your problem definition. Once you have a number of possible solutions, move on to the next step.
Evaluate possible solutions. Do ideas meet design criteria? List the advantages and disadvantages. Select the best design alternatives. Use a decision matrix to evaluation. At this point, you may need to revisit your problem definition or brainstorm some more. Once you have evaluated possible solutions, move on to the next step.
Make and test a model. Create detailed technical drawings, prototype or scale model, mathematical and computer models, Conduct performance and user tests. At this point, you made need to go back to brainstorming solutions or evaluating possible solutions. Once you have a model you are happy with, move on to the next step.
Modify and improve design. Fix problems, improve design, do more testing if needed. In the worse case, scrap the design. You may need to go back to evaluating possible solutions to making and testing the model. Once you have a design you are happy with, move on to the next step.
Communicate final design. Create final technical drawings, and technical manuals for assembly, operation, and maintenance.

[Return to Figure 1.5.1]

Figure 1.5.2 image description:

A writing process diagram that encourages constantly revisiting previous stages.

Prewriting. This stage is for generating ideas, understanding the ideas of others, and collecting information [note taking, free-writing, brainstorming, looping].
Planning. Here, you are organizing and focusing ideas. This may involve mind mapping, clustering, listing, and creating outlines.
Drafting. In the drafting stage you are writing initial drafts of a text focusing mainly on the development, organization, and elaboration of ideas.
Reflection. In the reflection stage, you can let the work sit and come back to it at a later point. You may cycle back between drafting a reflection a number of times before moving on.
Peer/tutor review. Now you can get feedback from others. This may require you to return to the drafting and reflecting stages.
Revision. Here you are further developing and clarifying ideas and the structure of the text. This may require you to return to the drafting and reflecting stages. If the work requires additional research or idea generation, return to the planning stage.
Editing and proofreading. Here the focus is on surface-level features of the text.

[Return to Figure 1.5.2]

II

2. PROFESSIONAL STYLE

In the previous chapter, we defined technical writing as a “transactional” and primarily “problem-solving” genre and described some of the key conventions and considerations technical writers must keep in mind. In this chapter, we will look more deeply into the style of writing expected of this genre.

2.1 Reader-Centered Writing: Understand how to take a reader-centred approach [rather than a writer-centred one] that focuses on knowing your audience and writing specifically to meet their needs.

2.2 Communicating with Precision: Review and practice techniques to make your writing more precise and concise.

2.3 Writing to Persuade: Understand how to use rhetoric in a professional context, avoiding logical fallacies and inappropriate marketing language.

2.4 The Importance of Verbs: Recognize how to choose strong verbs as the “engines” that drive efficient and effective sentences; revise passages to improve concision and flow.

For review of grammar basics, see Appendix E: Sentence Structure and Appendix F: Punctuation Rules.

To start off, complete the exercise below.

	Writing for School	Writing for Work
Purpose
Audience
Content
Document Life Span
Liability
Format & Design Elements
Writing Style

What key differences do you note between the two writing contexts? What do you think accounts for those differences?

2.1 KEY CONCEPT: Reader-Centred Writing

Writing can be conceptualized as writer-centred or reader-centred. Things like diaries and journals are primarily writer-centred, in that they are written for the benefit of the writer. Your schoolwork may also have been somewhat writer-centred, in that often your goal was to “show what you know” and thereby “get a good grade.” Technical communications require that you shift this mindset and write for the benefit of your reader—or design the content and structure of your communication for your “user.” This mindset should be informed by an understanding of your audience. Use these guidelines and ask yourself the following questions:

Who is my target audience? Are they internal or external readers? Upstream, downstream or lateral from you? Do I have multiple readers?
What is their perspectives on the topic, on me, and on the document I will write? What are they expecting to do with the document? What is the document meant to accomplish? Why has it been requested? What is my role and relationship to my readers? What does the reader need to know? Already know? What does my reader NOT need to have explained?
What is my goal or purpose in writing to these readers? What am I trying to communicate? What do I want them to do as a result of reading this document? How can I plan the content to meet my readers’ needs?
What is my reader’s goal? Why does this audience want or need to read this document?

Getting a clear understanding of your audience is important in communicating effectively. It also enables you to imagine your audience as you write and revise. Keep asking yourself whether what you have said would be clear to your audience. How could you say it better?

Choose one of the topics below. Then perform an audience analysis, using the questions above to gain an understanding of the needs of different audiences. Write a profile of your intended reader[s] and consider what sort of information they will need and why?

You have been asked to write a report on Maintaining Internet Privacy for
a] A new internet user who just signed up for internet service
b] A start up e-commerce website developer
Prepare a document on Food-born Diseases for
a] Restaurant workers [servers and kitchen staff]
b] For a health inspector training course
Provide information on a proposed New Bus Shelter Design to
a] Mayor’s office
b] Contractor
c] Newspaper reporter writing an article on the issue

Professional Tone

“Tone” refers to the attitude that a document conveys towards the topic and/or the reader. You have likely read something that sounded angry, or optimistic, or humorous, or cynical, or enthusiastic. These words characterize the tone. Technical communication tends to avoid displaying an obvious emotion, and instead strives for a neutral tone.

Tone is created through word choice [diction], word order [syntax], sentence construction, and viewpoint. Consider a piece of academic writing that you may have read. It creates a formal tone through its use of specialized terminology, sophisticated vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and third person voice. This style suits the genre because it is directed at experts and scholars in the field, and seeks to convey complex information densely and objectively, with an emphasis on reason, logic, and evidence.

Now consider a piece of business writing that you may have read. The tone may be sightly less formal but not colloquial. The language is direct and plain, and the sentences are shorter and more straightforward. It may make use of the second person [“you”]. This style suits business writing because it is directed at colleagues, management, or clients who are seeking information clearly and quickly and who may need to take action on it.

Writing Constructively

Striking the appropriate tone involves understanding your purpose, context, and audience. It also involves an understanding that workplaces are often hierarchical, and that cooperation and teamwork are required. Therefore, it is important to consider how you want your reader to feel, and what may make your reader feel that way. Your goal is to write constructively, which means to use positive phrasing to convey your message to your reader. Table 2.1.1 illustrates the differences between destructive/negative and constructive/positive feelings the reader may experience as a result of the tone used in a document.

TABLE 2.1.1 Differences between destructive/negative and constructive/positiveNegativeConstructive

misunderstood	understood
outraged	conciliatory
disgusted	pleased
guilty	capable
belittled	empowered
patronized	respected
defensive	proud
chastised	valued
humiliated	honoured
excluded	a sense of belonging
resentment	contentment

Considering how your reader may feel after reading your document is an important part of revision. Did your tone come across like you hoped it would? Could it be misconstrued? Often this is where peer reviewing can be helpful. Asking a colleague to review your document before sending it off to its intended audience is a common professional practice.

Sometimes, you will need to communicate information that is unpleasant, such as delivering bad news or rejecting a request. Communicating constructively is possible—and arguably even more important—in these situations. Regardless of message, how can you ensure you are communicating constructively?

Adopt an adult-to-adult approach: that is to say, avoid talking down to your reader in a patronizing tone, and likewise avoid sounding petulant or unwilling to take responsibility. Aim to communicate respectfully, responsibly, confidently, and cooperatively — as one responsible adult to another.
Be courteous: focus on the reader as much as possible. Use “you” unless it results in blaming [one effective use of passive verbs is to avoid assigning blame: “mistakes were made”]. Use traditionally accepted forms of courtesy and politeness. Use gender-neutral phrasing and plural forms, unless you are referring to a specific person and you know their gender.
Focus on the positive: emphasize what you can do rather than what you can’t. Try to avoid negative wording and phrasing [no, not, never, none, isn’t, can’t, don’t, etc.]. Focus on what can be improved.
Be genuine: apologize if you have made a mistake. Take responsibility and promise to do better. Be authentic in your expression. Avoid sounding like marketing material [ad-speak]. Make reasonable claims that can be backed with evidence.

Consider the following perspectives:

Writer-Centred [I, we]Reader-Centred [you]

If I can answer any questions, I’ll be happy to do so.	If you have any questions, please ask.
We shipped the order this morning.	Your order was shipped this morning.
I’m happy to report that …	You’ll be glad to know that …

Negative PhrasingConstructive Phrasing

We cannot process your claim because the necessary forms have not been completed	Your claim can be processed as soon as we receive the necessary forms
We do not take phone calls after 3:00pm on Fridays	You try …
We closed your case because we never received the information requested in our letter of April …

A colleague has asked you to review his email before sending. What revisions to content, tone, and style would you suggest?

From:        Jake Burns
To:        J. Parsons, Project Co-ordinator
Date:        12 December 2015
Subject:   Two Problems

Hi Ms. P

Say, we may need to increase the budget on this project by $12,000. Sam screwed up when he calculated material costs. Now we don’t have enough budgeted to add the additional G3 servers with the 36GB 15k hot pluggable hard drives. I know you don’t know what all that means, but trust me. WE NEED THOSE SERVER UPGRADES!!!

Also, I would like to talk about getting my office moved closer to the rest of the IT department. All the running back and forth is disturbing other employees. I am so far away from everyone that I figure I must need to change deodorant or something. ; ]

How do you think the following memo will make the recipients feel? How would you revise the following memo to more constructively address the problem?

From:     Ann Onymous
To:          All Employees
Date:       Feb. 3, 2011
Subject:   Littering

For some time now, smoking has been strictly prohibited within five metres of the Main Building entrance. Do NOT smoke anywhere near the doors!

Some of you still insist on smoking and have been doing so inside this area. As a result, the areas near the rear exit and around the picnic tables are constantly littered with smoking-related debris [filter tips, half-smoked cigarettes, empty lighters, etc.], creating an eyesore and making more work for my staff, who have to keep cleaning up this mess.

Starting Monday, sand buckets will be provided outside the read doors and in the picnic area. Use them!

For further reading, see “Communication in the Workplace: What Can NC State Students Expect?” a study based on the responses of over 1000 professionals from various fields, including engineering, on how important business, technical and scientific communication is to their work.

This work is included with permission and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

2.2 Communicating with Precision

So far we have discussed the importance of writing with the reader in mind; of striking the right tone for your audience, message, and purpose; of writing constructively; and of writing persuasively. Now we move onto the actual writing itself. Two key characteristics of professional technical communication are that it is precise and concise. This precision and concision must be evident at all levels, from the overall document, to paragraphing, to sentence structure to word choice, and even to punctuation. Every word or phrase should have a distinct and useful purpose. If it doesn’t, cut it or revise.

The 7 Cs of Professional Writing

The 7 C’s are simply seven words that begin with C that characterize strong professional style. Applying the 7 C’s of professional communication will result in writing that is

Clear
Coherent
Concise
Concrete
Correct
Complete
Courteous.

CLEAR writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it because often a lack of clarity comes from unclear thinking or poor planning; this, unfortunately, leads to confused or annoyed readers. Clear writing conveys the purpose of the document immediately to the reader; it matches vocabulary to the audience, avoiding jargon and unnecessary technical or obscure language while at the same time being precise. In clarifying your ideas, ensure that each sentence conveys one idea, and that each paragraph thoroughly develops one unified concept.

COHERENT writing ensures that the reader can easily follow your ideas and your train of thought. One idea should lead logically into the next through the use of transitional words and phrases, structural markers, planned repetition, sentences with clear subjects, headings that are clear, and effective and parallel lists. Writing that lacks coherence often sounds “choppy” and ideas seem disconnected or incomplete. Coherently connecting ideas is like building bridges between islands of thought so the reader can easily move from one idea to the next.

CONCISE writing uses the least words possible to convey the most meaning while still maintaining clarity. Avoid unnecessary padding, awkward phrasing, overuse of “to be” forms [is, are, was, were, am, be, being], long preposition strings, vagueness, unnecessary repetition and redundancy. Use active verbs whenever possible, and take the time to choose a single word rather than a long phrase or cliched expression. Think of your word count like a budget; be cost effective by making sure every word you choose does effective work for you. Cut a word, save a buck! As William Zinsser asserts, “the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components.”W. Zinsser, “Simplicity,” [Online]. Available: //www.geo.umass.edu/faculty/wclement/Writing/zinsser.html

CONCRETE writing involves using specific, precise language to paint a picture for your readers so that they can more easily understand your ideas. If you have to explain an abstract concept or idea, try to use examples, analogies, and precise language to illustrate it. Use measurable descriptors whenever possible; avoid vague terms like “big” or “good.” Try to get your readers to “see” your ideas by using specific terms and descriptions.

CORRECT writing uses standard English punctuation, sentence structure, usage, and grammar. Being correct also means providing accurate information, as well as using the right document type and form for the task.

COMPLETE writing includes all requested information and answers all relevant questions. The more concrete and specific you are, the more likely your document will be complete as well. Review your checklist of specifications before submitting your document to its intended reader.

COURTEOUS writing entails designing a reader-friendly, easy-to-read document; using tactful language and appropriate modes of addressing the audience; and avoiding potentially offensive terminology, usage, and tone. As we have discussed in an early section, without courtesy you cannot be constructive.

In some cases, some of these might come into conflict: what if being too concise results in a tone that sounds terse, or an idea that seems incomplete? Figure 2.2.1 illustrates one method of putting all the 7Cs together.

Figure 2.2.1 Putting all the 7Cs together Figure 2.2.1 created by Alyssa Zicari and Jenna Hildemann; used with permission [Image description]

Be mindful of the tradeoffs, and always give priority to being clear: writing that lacks clarity cannot be understood and therefore cannot achieve its purpose. Writing that adheres to the 7 C’s helps to establish your credibility as a technical professional.

Remember the librarian’s “garbled memo” from the Case Studies in Chapter 1.4? Try revising it so that it adheres to the 7 Cs; make it clear, coherent, concrete and concise, while also being complete, courteous and correct.

MEMO

Sentence Variety and Length

While variety makes for interesting writing, too much of it can also reduce clarity and precision. Technical writing tends to use simple sentence structures more often than the other types. That said, simple does not necessarily mean “simplistic,” short, or lacking in density. Remember that in grammatical terms, simple just means that it has one main clause [one subject and one predicate]. You can still convey quite a bit of concrete information in a simple sentence.

The other consideration for precise writing is length. Your sentences should vary in length just as they can vary in type. However, you want to avoid having too many long sentences because they take longer to read and are often more complex. That is appropriate in academic writing but less so in technical writing. The goal is to aim for an average of around 20 to 30 words per sentence. Reserve the short sentences for main points and use longer sentences for supporting points that clarify or explain cause and effect relationships. If you feel the sentence is too long, break it into two sentences. You do not want your reader to have to read a sentence twice to understand it. If you make compound or complex sentences, ensure that you use appropriate coordinating or subordinating strategies to make the relationship between clauses perfectly clear. See Appendix E to review specific information on simple, compound, and complex sentence structures.

Precise Wording

Technical writing is precise writing. Vague, overly general, hyperbolic or subjective/ambiguous terms are simply not appropriate in this genre. You do not want to choose words and phrasing that could be interpreted in more than one way. Choose words that most precisely, concisely, and accurately convey your point. Below are some guidelines and examples to follow for using precise wording.

1. Replace abstract nouns with verbs.

Verbs, more than nouns, help convey ideas concisely, so where possible, avoid using nouns derived from verbs. Often these abstract nouns end in –tion and –ment. See examples in the following chart.

Abstract Noun	Verb
acquisition	acquire
analysis	analyze
recommendation	recommend
observation	observe
application	apply
confirmation	confirm
development	develop
ability	able, can
assessment	assess

2. Prefer short words to long words and phrases.

The goal is to communicate directly and plainly so use short, direct words whenever possible. In other words, don’t use long words or phrases when short ones will do. Write to express, not impress.

Long	Short
cognizant; be cognizant of	aware, know
commence; commencement	begin, beginning
utilize; utilization	use [v], use [n]
inquire; make an inquiry	ask
finalize; finalization	complete, end
afford an opportunity to	permit, allow
at this point in time	now, currently
due to the fact that	because, due to
has the ability to	can

3. Avoid clichés.

Clichés are expressions that you have probably heard and used hundreds of times. They are over-used expressions that have largely lost their meaning and impact.

Clichés	Alternatives
as plain as day	plainly, obvious, clear
ballpark figure	about, approximately
few and far between	rare, infrequent
needless to say	of course, obviously
last but not least	finally, lastly
as far as ___ is concerned	?

4. Avoid cluttered constructions.

This category includes redundancies, repetitions, and “there is/are” and “it is” constructions.

Redundancies
combine/join together	fill completely	unite as one
finish entirely	refer/return/revert back to	emphasize/stress strongly
examine [closely]	suddenly interrupt	better/further enhance
eventually evolve over time	strictly forbid	rely/depend heavily
plan ahead	harshly condemn	protest against
completely surround on all sides	estimate/approximate roughly	gather/assemble together
clearly articulate	carefully consider	successfully prove
future plan	mutual agreement	years of age
in actual fact	positive benefits	end result/product

5. Use accurate wording.

Sometimes this requires more words instead of fewer, so do not sacrifice clarity for concision. Make sure your words convey the meaning you intend. Avoid using words that have several possible meanings; do not leave room for ambiguity or alternate interpretations of your ideas. Keep in mind that readers of technical writing tend to choose literal meanings, so avoid figurative language that might be confusing [for example, using the word “decent” to describe something you like or think is good]. Separate facts from opinions by using phrases like “we recommend,” “we believe,” or “in our opinion.” Use consistent terminology rather than looking for synonyms that may be less precise.

Qualify statements that need qualifying, especially if there is possibility for misinterpretation. Do not overstate through the use of absolutes and intensifiers. Avoid overusing intensifiers like “extremely,” and avoid absolutes like “never, always, all, none” as these are almost never accurate. Remember Obiwan Kenobi’s warning:

“Only a Sith deals in absolutes.”Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith [2005]. [Film]. Directed by G. Lucas

We tend to overuse qualifiers and intensifiers, so below are some that you should be aware of and consider whether you are using them effectively.

Overused Intensifiers
absolutely	actually	assuredly	certainly	clearly	completely
considerably	definitely	effectively	extremely	fundamentally	drastically
highly	in fact	incredibly	inevitably	indeed	interestingly
markedly	naturally	of course	particularly	significantly	surely
totally	utterly	very	really	remarkably	tremendously

Overused Qualifiers
apparently	arguably	basically	essentially	generally	hopefully
in effect	in general	kind of	overall	perhaps	quite
rather	relatively	seemingly	somewhat	sort of	virtually

For a comprehensive list of words and phrases that should be used with caution, see Kim Blank’s “Wordiness, Wordiness, Wordiness List.” K. G. Blank, “Wordiness list,” Department of English, University of Victoria [Online]. Available: //web.uvic.ca/~gkblank/wordiness.html

6. Use the active voice.

The active voice emphasizes the person/thing doing the action in a sentence. For example, The outfielder throws the ball. The subject, “outfielder” actively performs the action of the verb “throw.” The passive voice emphasizes the recipient of the action. In other words, something is being done to something by somebody: The ball was thrown [by the outfielder]. Passive constructions are generally wordier and often leave out the person/thing doing the action.

Active	Passive
S →V →O	S ←V ←O
Subject → actively does the action of the verb → to the object of the sentence	Subject ← passively receives the action of the verb ← from the object
Subject → acts → on object	Subject ← is acted upon ← by the object

While the passive voice has a place—particularly if you want to emphasize the receiver of an action as the subject of the sentence, or the action itself, or you want to avoid using first person—its overuse results in writing that is wordy, vague, and stuffy. When possible, use the active voice to convey who or what performs the action of the verb.

Precise writing encapsulates many of the 7 C’s; it is clear, concise, concrete, and correct. But it is also accurate and active. To write precisely and apply the 7 C’s, it is important to look critically at your sentences, perhaps in a way you may not have done before. You need to consider the design of those sentences, from the words to the phrases to the clauses, to ensure that you are communicating your message effectively.

Image descriptions

Figure 2.2.1 image description:

A priority list of the 7 Cs.

Clear: Plan ahead! Know your purpose and convey your ideas in a unified manner.
Coherent: Organize your thoughts in a logical, structured progression.
Concise: Budget your words wisely; ensure your writing contains only what’s necessary.
Concrete: Use specific and precise language, use measurable descriptors and avoid vague language.
Correct: Adhere to proper grammar, punctuation, and document structure.
Complete: Give all the important information and answer all relevant questions.
Courteous: Format so that the document is easy to read. Use appropriate and tactful language.

[Return to Figure 2.2.1]

2

2.3 Writing To Persuade

Sometimes, you may want to persuade your reader to take a particular action or position on an issue. To be effective, you should consider the following elements of persuasion, often referred to as Rhetorical Appeals. The ancient Greek words are ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos. These concepts are still critical in rhetoric studies today [see Figure 2.3.1]:

Ethos – Appeal to Credibility/Authority: this element of persuasion involves establishing your credibility, expertise, or authority to be making the argument. What experience or expertise do you have? What knowledge or skills do you possess? What’s your role within the organization, and/or in relation to the reader? Why should the reader trust you as a reliable, knowledgeable, authoritative, and ethical source of information?
Pathos – Appeal to Emotion/Interest/Values: this element involves appealing to the emotions, values, and/or interests of the reader. How does your proposal benefit them? Why should they care about it? How does it relate to the goals of the organization? How can you build “common ground” with your reader? What will make your reader feel “good” about your project? How can you evoke emotions such as pride or outrage?
Logos – Appeal to Reason/Logic: this element involves grounding your argument in logic, reason, and evidence. What evidence supports your claims? On what facts and data is your reasoning based? Arguments grounded in reason and evidence are often considered the strongest. Government organizations and companies alike generally like to make “evidence-based decisions.”
Kairos – Appeal to Timeliness/Appropriateness: using this appeal means being aware of what is appropriate and timely in a given rhetorical situation. Sometimes, a well-crafted argument can fail because it comes at the wrong time. Kairos involves knowing what is “in” or “hot” right now, what is an important topic or issue, and how best to discuss it; knowing when it is the “right time” to broach a topic or propose an idea; knowing how to use the appropriate tone, level of formality and decorum for the specific situation.

Finding the appropriate blend of appeals is critical to making a successful argument; consider that when making your case, you often have to “win both hearts and minds”—so you’ll need to appeal to both emotions and logic, do whatever you can to show the reader that you are a trustworthy source of information, and present your argument at the most opportune time. In addition to these elements, you should also be mindful of the word choice and tone so that you are presenting a persuasive argument that is also constructive and conveys the appropriate tone for your intended audience, message, and purpose.

Avoiding Ad-Speak

“Ad-speak” refers to the kind of language often used in advertisements. Its aim is to convince consumers to buy something, whether they need it or not, hopefully without thinking too much about it. Because we hear this kind of rhetoric all the time, it easily becomes habit to use it ourselves. We must break this habit when communicating in professional contexts.

Ad-Speak tends to use strategies such as

Emotional manipulation
Logical fallacies
Hyperbole
Exaggeration or dishonesty
Vague claims
Incomplete or cherry-picked data
Biased viewpoints
Hired actors rather than professionals or experts as spokespeople.

As a student in a professionalizing program learning the specialized skills and developing the sense of social obligation needed to become a trusted professional, you should avoid using “sensational” language characteristic of marketing languge. Instead, when trying to persuade your reader, make sure you use quantifiable, measurable descriptors and objective language in your writing. You cannot determine how many units of “excellence” something has, or its quantifiable amount of “awesomeness,” “fantastic-ness,” or “extraordinariness.” Describing something as “incredible” literally means it’s unbelievable. So avoid using these kinds of words shown in Figure 2.3.2.

Figure 2.3.2 Ad-Speak Word Cloud.

Find measurable terms like “efficiency” [in time or energy use], “effectiveness” at fulfilling a specific task, measurable benefits and/or costs, or even “popularity” as measured by a survey.

Communicating Ethically

In professional writing, communicating ethically is critically important. Ethical communications involves communicating from a place of accountability, responsibility, integrity, and values. If you are communicating ethically, you are demonstrating respect for your reader, the organizations you work for and with, and the culture and context within which you work. You also foster fairness and trust through honesty. Failure to maintain integrity and ethics can result in consequences ranging from damage to reputation, loss of work, lawsuits, criminal charges, and even tragic loss of life.

This is precisely why many professional associations have guidelines that govern the ethical behavior of their membership. Two such documents that may be relevant to you are the Faculty of Engineering’s “Standards for Professional Behavior” [.pdf] and the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of BC APEGBC Code-of-Ethics [.pdf]. For example, take note of the portions of the APEGBC Code of Ethics that relate specifically to ethical communication.

Provide an opinion on a professional subject only when it is founded upon adequate knowledge and honest conviction;
Conduct themselves with fairness, courtesy and good faith towards clients, colleagues and others, give credit where it is due and accept, as well as give, honest and fair professional comment;
Present clearly to employers and clients the possible consequences if professional decisions or judgments are overruled or disregarded;
Extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineering and geoscience and protect the profession from misrepresentation and misunderstanding.”

It is important to become familiar with these standards of practice, and to consider how they impact communication practices. Remember that you are communicating in a professional context, and that comes with responsibility. Consider the different rhetorical situations diagrammed in Figure 2.3.3, one for a marketer and one for an engineer.

Technical Writing Essentials

Introduction to Professional Communications in the Technical Fields

Candice Neveu and Monika Smith

University of Victoria

Contents

1

Acknowledgements

Suzan Last

2

Introduction

Suzan Last

Image Description

I

1. WHAT IS TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?

Why are Technical Communication Skills Important?

What Does Technical Writing Look Like?

1.1 KEY CONCEPT: Problem-Solving Approach to Communications Tasks

Communication as Solution

1.2 Conventions and Characteristics

1.3 Understanding the Rhetorical Situation

Suzan Last and Candice Neveu

1.4 Case Study: The Cost of Poor Communication

1

1.5 Writing Processes

Image descriptions

II

2. PROFESSIONAL STYLE

2.1 KEY CONCEPT: Reader-Centred Writing

Professional Tone

Writing Constructively

2.2 Communicating with Precision

The 7 Cs of Professional Writing

Sentence Variety and Length

Precise Wording

1. Replace abstract nouns with verbs.

2. Prefer short words to long words and phrases.

3. Avoid clichés.

4. Avoid cluttered constructions.

5. Use accurate wording.

6. Use the active voice.

Image descriptions

2

2.3 Writing To Persuade

Avoiding Ad-Speak

Communicating Ethically

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