How does adaptation affect our attention?
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Several previous psychophysical and neurophysiological studies have investigated the separate effects of attention and adaptation on visual processing. Here, we investigated the combined effects of attention and adaptation on motion processing by measuring the effects of spatial attention on the duration of the motion after-effect (MAE) over a wide range of stimulus contrasts. MAE duration was compared between two conditions: full-attention, subjects were required to pay attention to the adapting motion stimulus, and poor-attention, subjects performed a difficult vowel detection task at the center of gaze and ignored the adapting motion stimulus. Attention was found to increase the MAE duration by a factor of 1.4, which was approximately constant over a wide range of stimulus contrasts (3.22–80.6%). Notably, this included contrasts for which the MAE duration had reached its asymptotic value. We show that a quantitative model based on known properties of directionally selective MT neurons can explain these results by assuming that attention enhances the effects of adaptation, a phenomenon we refer to as “adaptation gain”. Specifically, attending to an adapting motion stimulus shifts the semi-saturation point (C50) of the underlying contrast response function (CRF) of motion detectors roughly 1.4-fold more to the right than does ignoring that same stimulus. By enhancing the effects of adaptation in this fashion, attention is predicted to enhance the adaptability of the visual motion system. Show
The motion aftereffect (MAE) provides a behavioural probe into the mechanisms underlying motion perception, and has been used to study the effects of attention on motion processing. Visual attention can enhance detection and discrimination of selected visual signals. However, the relationship between attention and motion processing remains contentious: not all studies find that attention increases MAEs. Our meta-analysis reveals several factors that explain superficially discrepant findings. Across studies (37 independent samples, 76 effects) motion adaptation was significantly and substantially enhanced by attention (Cohen’s d = 1.12, p < .0001). The effect more than doubled when adapting to translating (vs. expanding or rotating) motion. Other factors affecting the attention-MAE relationship included stimulus size, eccentricity and speed. By considering these behavioural analyses alongside neurophysiological work, we conclude that feature-based (rather than spatial, or object-based) attention is the biggest driver of sensory adaptation. Comparisons between naïve and non-naïve observers, different response paradigms, and assessment of ‘file-drawer effects’ indicate that neither response bias nor publication bias are likely to have significantly inflated the estimated effect of attention. Section snippetsBackgroundAttention refers to our ability to selectively process certain aspects of a visual scene, such that particular regions or features are enhanced, and irrelevant stimuli are inhibited (Carrasco, 2011). The effects of attention on perceptual processes are usually measured via manipulations of covert attention in which attention is directed independently of eye movements. This contrasts with overt attention, in which a redirection of attention is accompanied by an eye movement to fixate the Inclusion criteriaAll studies that met the following criteria were included in the present meta-analysis: 1The study manipulated attention during motion adaptation and reported the subsequent behavioural motion aftereffect. 2The stimuli did not differ across attentional manipulations. 3The study was published in an English language journal on or before August 2016. 4Participants were healthy human adults – studies using patient populations were excluded. 5The study was not a re-analysis of existing data 6Sufficient Summary of included dataIn total, 29 studies were analysed, involving 229 participants across 37 independent samples, yielding 76 effect size estimates. These effect size estimates, and the studies from which they originated are provided in Table 1. Detailed information about each effect is available in the Supplementary Material S1. Two effect sizes were more than ± 3 SDs from the mean. However, removing these outliers reduced the overall effect size by only 0.04 and all significant moderators remained significant. Summary of findingsAttending to a moving stimulus significantly increases the resultant MAE. This effect of attention is modulated by various characteristics of the adaptation and test stimuli: larger attentional effects were found following adaptation to stimuli that were (i) translating (vs. those with complex motion trajectories) (ii) at a greater eccentricity and (iii) smaller in size. In addition, when considering multiple moderators simultaneously, stronger attentional modulation was reported in studies ConclusionsOur meta-analysis supports a number of conclusions. First, there is overwhelming evidence that motion adaptation is affected by attention. By analysing the effects of different paradigms, participant naivety and looking for evidence of the ‘file drawer’ effect, we can be confident that reported effects are not driven by response bias or publication bias. It seems that Wohlgemuth (1911) was wrong after all. More importantly, we identified several factors that modulate the effects of attention on References (91)
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Inclusionary criteria were: 1) patients with depression, 2) study of HPA axis-related candidate genes, 3) at least four weeks of antidepressants, and 4) assessment of depressive symptoms dividing patients into non-responders and responders. Nineteen studies were identified. Non-responders and responders did not differ in single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding arginine vasopressin. Findings were equivocal regarding genes encoding the FK506 binding protein 5 and glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors. Specific SNPs and haplotypes within genes related to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRHBP, CRHR1) and melanocortins (POMC) predicted non-responder status. Replication studies and additional investigations exploring gene x environment and drug x environment interactions are necessary before pharmacological treatments may be adjusted based on a patient’s genetic profile. Research article Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, Volume 96, 2019, pp. 116-126 Show abstractNavigate Down Behavior is a complex product of interactions between sensory influx arising from the environment and the neural state of the organism. Therefore, identical sensory input can elicit different behavioral responses. Research in recent years has demonstrated that perception is modulated when an organism is engaged in active behavior – suggesting that neural activity in motor pathways is one factor governing the neural state of networks engaged in sensory processing. In the current manuscript, we focus on the auditory modality and propose a mechanism by which activity in motor cortex changes the neural state in auditory cortex through global inhibition. In turn, such global inhibition reduces auditory net population activity, sharpens auditory frequency tuning curves, shifts the auditory oscillatory state and increases the signal-to-noise ratio of auditory evoked neural activity. These changes can result in either attenuated or enhanced behavioral responses depending on the environmental context. We base our model on animal and human literature and suggest that these motor-induced shifts in sensory states may explain reported phenomena and apparent discrepancies in the literature of motor-sensory interactions, such as sensory attenuation or sensory enhancement. Research article Systems biology and gene networks in Alzheimer’s diseaseNeuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, Volume 96, 2019, pp. 31-44 Show abstractNavigate Down Gene mining has been a fruitful approach in the study of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). As a new starting point for studying AD, genetic and genomic investigations consistently strive to discover causative variants that are related to disease pathophysiology. Currently, genetic and genomic approaches have identified numerous loci. However, the elaboration of AD mechanism lagged behind gene discovery. The extensive use of parallel, high-throughput, next-generation sequencing techniques has improved our understanding of the roles of genetic variants in the brain at the highest level of functional hierarchy. We highlight three molecular systems (the transcriptome, proteome and epigenome) in this review to ascertain whether the methods used in systems biology studies of AD are useful. Here, we present many advantages of the high-throughput molecular, integrative and network methods, which may provide a good reference for future studies employing network biology approaches and large datasets. Research article The uncertain brain: A co-ordinate based meta-analysis of the neural signatures supporting uncertainty during different contextsNeuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, Volume 96, 2019, pp. 241-249 Show abstractNavigate Down Uncertainty is often inevitable in everyday life and can be both stressful and exciting. Given its relevance to psychopathology and wellbeing, recent research has begun to address the brain basis of uncertainty. In the current review we examined whether there are discrete and shared neural signatures for different uncertain contexts. From the literature we identified three broad categories of uncertainty currently empirically studied using functional MRI (fMRI): basic threat and reward uncertainty, decision-making under uncertainty, and associative learning under uncertainty. We examined the neural basis of each category by using a coordinate based meta-analysis, where brain activation foci from previously published fMRI experiments were drawn together (1998–2017; 87 studies). The analyses revealed shared and discrete patterns of neural activation for uncertainty, such as the insula and amygdala, depending on the category. Such findings will have relevance for researchers attempting to conceptualise uncertainty, as well as clinical researchers examining the neural basis of uncertainty in relation to psychopathology. Research article Do ‘early’ brain responses reveal word form prediction during language comprehension? A critical reviewNeuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, Volume 96, 2019, pp. 367-400 Show abstractNavigate Down Current theories of language comprehension posit that readers and listeners routinely try to predict the meaning but also the visual or sound form of upcoming words. Whereas most neuroimaging studies on word prediction focus on the N400 ERP or its magnetic equivalent, various studies claim that word form prediction manifests itself in ‘early’, pre-N400 brain responses (e.g., ELAN, M100, P130, N1, P2, N200/PMN, N250). Modulations of these components are often taken as evidence that word form prediction impacts early sensory processes (the sensory hypothesis) or, alternatively, the initial stages of word recognition before word meaning is integrated with sentence context (the recognition hypothesis). Here, I comprehensively review studies on sentence- or discourse-level language comprehension that report such effects of prediction on early brain responses. I conclude that the reported evidence for the sensory hypothesis or word recognition hypothesis is weak and inconsistent, and highlight the urgent need for replication of previous findings. I discuss the implications and challenges to current theories of linguistic prediction and suggest avenues for future research. Research article A review of gaze entropy as a measure of visual scanning efficiencyNeuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, Volume 96, 2019, pp. 353-366 Show abstractNavigate Down While the concept of entropy has been applied to gaze analysis, it is unclear what aspects of visual scanning it measures. In this review, we first outline gaze control as a complex system of spatial prediction. Second, we provide a brief introduction to the concept of entropy within the context of information theory as the foundation for gaze entropy measures; with a specific focus on equations for Shannon’s entropy and conditional entropy. The application of these equations to gaze data is described as stationary gaze entropy (SGE) and gaze transition entropy (GTE) respectively. Third, we present an updated model of gaze orientation and propose an adaptable definition of GTE as a measure of visual scanning efficiency that underlies overall gaze dispersion measured by SGE. Finally, we review studies that have utilised GTE and SGE to assess visual scanning and discuss their results in relation to our proposed definitions and associated hypotheses. Methodological limitations in gaze entropy measures are discussed and suggestions provided to improve interpretability and generalisability of future studies. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Present address: School of Psychology & Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, RG6 6AL, England, UK. What is adaptation in attention?Sensory adaptation is a reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it. 1 While sensory adaptation reduces our awareness of a stimulus, it helps free up our attention and resources to attend to other stimuli in our environment.
How is perception affected by attention?Attention occurs when a person is prepared to notice a particular part of an object or subject to be more important than the other parts. Perception happens when these parts are recognized and realized. When one interprets these parts, one can pay attention, remember, and recall the most important ones.
Is adaptation an increase in sensitivity?Sensitivity increases during periods of weak stimulation, whereas when the background stimulation is strong the sensitivity is reduced. This form of gain control is called sensory adaptation.
What is an important benefit of sensory adaptation?Sensory adaptation is important for daily functioning because it allows our attention to be freed to detect new and/or important aspects of our environment without being distracted by aspects of it that are constantly there.
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